How Much Fodder Does An Animal Need

1. Animal Wellness
2. Animal Husbandry & Welfare
3. Animal nutrition and feed rations

1.Introduction

ii.Energy Feeds

3.Minerals

4.Mineral, Free energy and Protein content of the most of import feeds in Republic of kenya

5.Vitamins

half-dozen.Fibre requirements and H2o

7.Water

8.Feed additives

9.Feed quality

10.Formulation of balanced dairy cattle rations

11.Information Sources

Animal diet and feed rations

Dairy cow feeding on banana stems

(c) A. Seif, icipe

Overstate Image

Inadequate diet is a major cause of low live-weight gains, infertility and low milk yields and other wellness bug in animals.

The following volition explain the principles of animal nutrition and some examples of how to make home feed rations based on the types of feed available in major agro ecological zones.

Introduction

Livestock keeping in all its ventures is a major source of incomes all over Kenya, from the virtually productive to nearly desert areas, and for all livestock keepers livestock feeding and nutrition is a major concern.

Inadequate nutrition is a major cause of depression live-weight gains, infertility and low milk yields and other health issues in cattle.

Likewise pig, chicken, dairy goat and many other livestock keepers take expressed challenges in feeding their animals optimally. The following will explain the principles of creature diet and some examples of how to brand home feed rations based on the types of feed bachelor in major agro ecological zones.

The feed nutrients

Animal feed needs to meet the requirements of the animal. For cattle it must contain a sure structure to go along the stomach healthy, and for all animals information technology must contain dry matter, diverse groups of nutrients, minerals and trace-elements and should not be mouldy or mixed with dirt and soil nor contain poisonous ingredients (for case pesticides or herbicides on crop residues). The limerick of feeds in a ration depends on the type of animals beingness fed and their phase of product. Cattle and goats, beingness ruminants, are better equipped to digest crude fibre than pigs or chickens. Young animals demand more poly peptide than adult animals, while animals in milk need a higher poly peptide content in the ration than non lactating animals.

Mostly animals must have a ration containing:

• Energy (from carbohydrates and fats) to maintain the torso and produce (milk, meat, work). The carbohydrates and fats not needed for production are converted to fat and stored in the trunk.
• Poly peptide is needed for body building (growth) and maintenance as well as milk product. Without protein there would be no torso weight gain nor milk production. Excess poly peptide is converted to urea and fat
• Minerals help in body edifice equally well equally in biological regulation of growth and reproduction. They are also a major source of nutrients in milk.
• Vitamins help regulate the biological processes in the body and become a source of nutrients in milk
• Water helps all over in body building, estrus regulation, biological processes as well equally a large constituent of milk production too as eggs.

Segmentation of feed energy

Merely parts of the nutrients in feeds are available for the animal. All feeds contain energy: the gross free energy (GE) that is the energy that is bachelor when the feed is burned. For instance fresh sugarcane forage has a gross energy content of 18.2 MJ per kg of dry matter (DM). This GE is a value of the feeds itself and is non influenced by animals.

• Cattle can digest sugarcane forage for 68% (the rest is lost in the faeces): the digestible energy (DE) for cattle is xi.three MJ/kg DM.
• Pigs are able to digest only 37% of all energy in sugarcane fodder, so the digestible energy for pigs is only half-dozen.seven MJ/kg DM, much lower than that for cattle.

From the digestible free energy role cannot be used by the animal only is lost as methane gas or in urine. Especially ruminants loose part of the energy in marsh gas gas while in not-ruminants this is a minor loss. The remaining energy is called metabolizable energy (ME).

• The ME of sugarcane forage for cattle is 9.iii and for pigs it is 5.5 MJ/kg DM.
• From the ME some heat is lost and that free energy cannot be used past the brute itself. The energy that can be used by the animal is the net energy (NE). The efficiency this net energy is used for the various functions differs: for maintenance i kg of dry thing of sugarcane delivers eight.1 MJ, for growth the same kg of sugarcane fodder delivers eight.half dozen MJ and for lactation it contains 6.7 MJ/kg DM.
• So the net free energy of the sugarcane forage for cattle varies from six.vii - 8.vi and for pigs it varies from four - five.
• For loftier rough fibre forages and compared to cattle, goats use feeds with the same efficiency, camels and donkeys are less efficient, pigs are far less efficient, most poultry is far less efficient than cattle and rabbits are most equally efficient as cattle.
• For low rough fiber feeds pigs are more efficient than cattle. In the scheme "Fate of feed energy within the beast" the dissimilar parts of the systems are given.

When calculating rations, the value of the feeds and the requirements of the animals must have the aforementioned system. If energy of feeds is given in metabolizable energy, the requirements of animals should be stated in ME to be able to calculate rations. In some countries the net energy (NE) organisation is used, in other countries the digestible energy (DE) or metabolizable energy (ME) arrangement is used. The feed system used is mainly determined by the available information from feedstuffs and animals and the wish to exist more or less precise. Information technology is a compromise between the costs of research and analysis and the benefits of using a very sophisticated feed system. With limited data well-nigh feeds information technology is best to use a system based on Metabolizable Energy or on a DE arrangement, eastward.m. Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) system.

When calculating feed needs of unlike animals a system called Metabolisable Free energy as a footing for formulating rations on the farm is used. Metabolisable energy basically means that part of the feed which the fauna is able to utilize.

The unit of free energy is the joule of which 1 one thousand thousand units (ane 000 000 joule) is referred every bit Megajoule (MJ). The energy value can be given in the dry out matter or in the product (as fed). For ration calculations the free energy in the production is used. When comparing feeds (for case to compare prices of energy) it is more than convenient to use the free energy per kg of dry matter.

Basically, feed organic nutrients are required by the animals for 3 things: These are:
(i)use as materials for the construction of body tissues (growth and maintenance)
(ii) synthesis of products such every bit milk and eggs
(iii) use every bit sources of energy for work done. The work done include both metabolic (heat increment and maintenance) and physical e.one thousand. walking and feeding.

Fate of feed free energy within the animal

Fate of feed energy within the animal

Gross energy (GE)  The feed is comprised of chemic ingredients which are broadly classified as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and vitamins. Heat is released when organic material in such feed is burnt. For this reason, methods have been adult to measure out the quantity of chemical energy present in a feed by determining the amount of oestrus generated from consummate burning a known quantity. This is referred to as gross energy. Most of the common feeds accept energy content of about 18.5 MJ/kg DM.

Digestible free energy (DE)  Not all the gross free energy in consumed feed is available and useful to the beast. Some energy is lost from the animal though excretions: it is fixed in the feed in a way the animal cannot achieve it. Thedigestible free energyis calculated by subtraction of faecal energy from gross energy. The DE represents the free energy content of the digested nutrients. From these digestible nutrients the Full Digestible Nutrients (TDN) can be calculated.

Metabolizable energy (ME)  The animal further loses energy containing-substances through excretion of urine and product of gases during metabolic processes. Metabolizable energy is what remains after subtraction of energy lost from urine and flammable gases resulting from the digestible free energy of a feed. Loss of energy through methane (a flammable global warming gas) tin be substantial, particularly from ruminants; hence can exist of serious nutritive and effect on the environment.

Estrus increment (HI)  The ingestion of feed by an fauna is also followed past losses of energy not only every bit the chemic free energy excreta and gases produced but also as heat. Animals are continuously producing heat and losing it to their surroundings, either directly through radiation, conduction and convection or indirectly through water evaporation from the trunk. The heat is generated through processes of digestion and metabolism of nutrients derived from the feed. For instance, the human action of eating, which includes chewing, swallowing and secretion of saliva, requires muscular activeness and this generates rut. Unless the creature is in a particularly cold environment, this heat energy is of no value to it, and must be considered, similar the energy of the excreta, as a revenue enhancement on the free energy of the feed. Energy lost in this manner is referred to as Heat increment.

Net energy (NE)  The deduction of the HI of a feed from its ME gives the Cyberspace energy, which is the energy available to the brute for useful purposes such as torso maintenance and various forms of production (milk, meat, eggs, wool and labour).

Energy Feeds

Energy is the fuel that keeps all torso functions working. Milk product requires a lot of energy. If energy in the ration is non plenty, the animal volition lose trunk condition and for milking cows, milk yield will drop, pregnant cows become sick after calving and the dogie will usually be small in size. If in that location is excess energy in the ration, the animals becomes too fatty. Cows that are too fat at calving usually have difficult births, often have problems with retained placenta, displaced abomasums and may suffer from milk fever and ketosis. Sources of free energy are roughages and concentrate supplements fed to your animals.

Roughages form the master bulk of the dairy cow ration.
Roughages are beefy feeds that have a low energy content per unit volume (i.due east. hay, harbinger). They tin can take a high wet content (grass). Generally feedstuffs with more than 18% rough fibre and low digestibility are considered as roughages. Ruminating animals (cattle, goats, sheep) need a certain amount of crude fibre to keep a salubrious tummy system. On the other hand loftier yielding animals may not have enough capacity to swallow the amount of roughage required to meet the energy requirement due to limitation of stomach size. For this reason, supplementing roughage diets with feeds high in readily available free energy is often recommended. Examples of energy sources (forages and fodders, agricultural by-products and concentrates) are shown in Tables 2 and 3. In the tables the average values of feedstuffs are given. Local conditions tin can cause differences in chemical composition of the aforementioned feedstuff. The values in the table tin can be used as guidelines when no information is bachelor from the farmers own feeds. .

The currently recognized energy feed nutrients include:

• Simple Carbohydrates such as Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Sucrose, Maltose and Lactose, all different types of saccharide
• Complex (Carbohydrates) Polysaccharides such as
  • Starch, plant in roots and tubers besides as in grain,
  • Hemicellulose (somewhere betwixt sugar and cellulose chemically speaking),
  • Cellulose, the master constituent of cell walls of plants. Virtually arable in more fibrous feeds, mostly low in digestibility. Cattle, goats, sheep (as ruminants) and horses (with a large colon-caecum) digest cellulose fairly easily. Pigs and craven (as mono gastric animals) practice not digest cellulose very hands.
  • Lignin which essentially is non digestible to animals. Plant in over mature hays, straws and hulls. Loftier lignin content in feed may reduce the digestibility of cellulose and other nutrients.
• Fats and oils. Found in seeds, grains, avocados etc. Fats incorporate 2.25 times as much energy per kg compared to carbohydrates, but are usually expensive to produce.

Minerals

Minerals are required in small amounts but are important components of the ration. They are essential for cows to remain salubrious and for the torso to office properly, for the evolution and maintenance of strong bones and for successful reproduction and production of milk and eggs.

Minerals are chemical elements which form important component of fauna feed ingredients. They are essential in ensuring normal and proper functions of the body also equally in maintenance of proficient health. When an chemical element classified as essential lacks in the diet, animals volition in shorter or longer fourth dimension show deficiency symptoms, which are eradicated or prevented by inclusion of this item element in the diet. Some elements are required in relatively large amounts compared to others. For this reasons the minerals have been classified as'macro-minerals'(required in larger amounts: grams per kg feed) and'micro-minerals'or'trace-minerals'(required in minute amounts; milligrams or micrograms per kg of feed).

Of the 20 elements that function in creature nutrition, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are regarded equally the non-mineral elements. The other 16 are referred to equally the mineral elements which function in animal nutrition. Of these seven are macro-minerals (required in adequately large amounts) and 9 are micro-minerals (required in very small or trace amounts). Micro-minerals are also sometimes called trace-minerals.
Different livestock types have different mineral requirements, which as far as possible volition be described under each livestock blazon.

Some minerals can be stored in the animal trunk (liver: copper, bones: calcium) and sign of deficiencies are shown later on a longer menses of deficient feeding. Minerals that are not stored in the torso evidence signs of deficiency more rapid.

• Themacro-minerals are: are: Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Sulphur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg).

• Themicro- or trace mineralsare: Atomic number 26 (Fe), Iodine (I), Copper (Cu), Cobalt (Co), Fluorine (F), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium (Se).

Macro-minerals

Animals require more than of the macro-minerals (Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Sulphur) than the micro-minerals (Iodine, Iron, Cobalt, Copper, Manganese, Molybdenum, Zinc, Selenium). If animals practice not swallow enough of the macro-minerals, this volition cause reduced production, infertility problems, weakness of the bone and increased incidences of non-infectious diseases. In cows insufficient Calcium supply causes milk fever. Deficiencies in micro-minerals (trace elements) can cause a multifariousness of diseases and weather depending on which mineral is deficient.

Cattle grazing in areas around Nakuru ordinarily take Cobalt deficiency and may develop a wasting affliction called Nakuritis. They get bloodless and eventually die. The forages are deficient of mineral Cobalt considering the soils naturally incorporate very low levels of this micro-food. Special mineral supplements are available for cattle in such areas. Too much of the micro-minerals tin cause poisoning.

Calcium and Phosphorus are of particular importance when formulating rations. Legumes tend to have more Calcium and Phosphorus than grasses. Grains are low in Calcium. Immature night light-green forage tends to have more minerals than one-time, dry out and yellow forages. Most tropical forages are low in Phosphorus.

Extra Calcium and Phosphorus usually need to be provided in the ration over and above that naturally present in the feed and mineral mix, especially for high yielding animals. Tables ii and 3 testify examples of sources of mineral salts (Forages and fodders, agricultural by-products, concentrates and minerals).

• Common salt: (Sodium chloride) deficiency develops slow (weeks) merely causes unthrifty appearance and low performance. Provision of advert lib salt licks are recommended. Plants tend to exist low in both sodium and chlorine. It is therefore an important practise to give common salt to herbivores such as dairy cattle in order to prevent deficiency symptoms. Feeding diets deficient in salt may non evidence immediate symptoms, merely chronic deficiency dairy cattle diets has been shown to lead to low ambition, depression milk production and loss of weight. The addition of salt in the diet usually provide immediate cure. Fish meal, Guinea grass, Rhodes grass, Sweet potato vines, Rice and Oat straw and Sugarcane molasses are good sources for sodium.
  
• Calcium: Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the animal trunk. It is the well-nigh important elective of the skeleton (bones) and teeth. Calcium also plays important roles in the activities of enzymes and hormones, which catalyse and/or rest the trunk metabolic processes. Agricultural lime, fish meal, milk, crushed shells, marble dust, some seaweed and green leafy forages, peculiarly legumes, are adept sources of calcium. Calcium tend to be depression in onetime, dry and yellowing forages.

  In older (multiparous) dairy cows, a condition known as 'milk fever' (parturient paresis) commonly occurs shortly later on calving caused by lack of available calcium. It is characterized by a lowering of the claret calcium level (hypocalcaemia), muscular spasms, and in farthermost cases paralysis and unconsciousness.

  Deficiency symptoms: a) rickets in young stock. Joints get enlarged. Bones go soft and deformed. Condition may be corrected in early stages with calcium feeding. b) Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older animals. Bones become porous and weak. Status may be corrected by feeding calcium if bones practice not break.Examples are known of cows fed likewise petty calcium breaking their backs during mating

• Phosphorus: is needed for bone and teeth germination, building torso tissue (growth of animals), milk and egg production. Signs of phosphorous deficiency include animals eating soil, chewing on non feed objects, slow or poor appetite, tedious gain of bodyweight, low milk or egg production.Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility, apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition, depression or irregular oestrus.
  Sources of Phosphorous: Bone meal, Rock phosphate, Superphosphates such as TSP etc. Also many improved salt licks contain phosphorus. African locust edible bean, pod pulp, Cotton fiber seed meal, Wheat, bran, Rice bran and Sunflower cake are a skillful source of Phosphorous, but hays and straws have very low phosphorous content.
  
• Magnesium: is needed in proper operation of the nervous organization, carbohydrate metabolism and enzyme systems.
  Deficiencies: a) Hypermagnesaemia also called grass tetany, grass staggers and wheat poisoning can occur when animals are grazing on young fresh grass or wheat with high protein and potassium content and with very little content of magnesium.
  Symptoms are hyper excitability, paralyse and frequent death. More common in Europe than in Africa. Prevention: use beast salts containing magnesium especially when animals are grazing on new young grass or grains such equally oats. Assistant, stalks, Cassava, leafage, Pawpaw, leaves, Sweet potato vines, Cotton seed meal, soybean and Cocoa pods are practiced courses of magnesium. In Kenya magnesium deficiency hardly occurs, probably because of the available feeds.
  

• Sulphur: Sulphur requirements of cattle and sheep are around 0.ane-0.2% of ration dry matter. For not-ruminants sulphur should be in the form of sulfur-containing proteins. A deficiency of sulphur will express itself as a protein deficiency, general unthriftiness and poor performance. Practiced sources of sulphur are Lucerne, Wheat- and Rice bran and Sunflower cake.

Micro-minerals

• Iron: Necessary for blood and some enzyme formation. The precise minimum requirements have not been determined for diverse classes of livestock, but 80mg of iron per kg of diet is more than adequate for most animals. Deficiencies are near frequently constitute in young pigs (other animals much less sensitive): Laboured breathing, flappy wrinkled peel, oedema of caput and shoulders, pale eyelids, ears and olfactory organ. Prevention/cure: A few drops of ferrous sulphate or similar daily during the first 3-4 weeks. Salt licks containing iron. Cattle fed with roughages atomic number 26 volition be sufficient in general.
  

• Iodine: Needed for the product of Thyroxin in the thyroid gland. A level of 0.25 mg/kg air dried diet is considered adequate for nearly classes of livestock. Dairy cows should exist provided with 0.5 mg iodine/kg dry out affair feed.
  Deficiency symptoms: Goiter at nascency or before long after, Hairlessness at nascence, infected navels, dead or weak at birth. Prevention: mix normal iodized salt (tabular array salt) into the salt licks of the livestock.
  

• Cobalt: Needed in vitamin synthesis. For cattle and sheep, feed containing from 0.05-0.x mg of cobalt/kg feed prevents any cobalt deficiency. For pigs cobalt is simply needed as office of Vit B12. Several areas in Kenya accept cobalt scarce soils, producing feed scarce in cobalt.especially around Nakuru and Naivasha due to the absence of this element in the soils, leading to the absence in the pastures. A feed analysis volition evidence whether feed in your surface area is cobalt scarce. Consult your livestock officer.
  Deficiency symptoms are simply those of malnutrition: poor appetite, unthriftiness, weakness, anaemia, decreased fertility, slow growth and decreased milk and wool production. There are number of disorders due to cobalt deficiency characterized past emaciation (wasting disease orNakuritis), pining, anaemia and listlessness. Although excess cobalt tin exist toxic to animals, there is a wide margin of prophylactic level. Thus cobalt toxicity is generally unlikely. Prevention and cure: Where cobalt deficiency is diagnosed, 12.5g of whatever cobalt table salt, such as cobalt chloride, cobalt sulphate or cobalt carbonate can be mixed with 100 kg of normal cattle table salt. Barley, grain, Lucerne and Sorghum are relatively high in cobalt.
  

• Copper: needed for blood and hair production besides equally in the enzyme system. Where diets are not high in Molybdenum and/or sulphate the following levels of copper per kilo of diet dry matter take been found adequate:
  • Dairy cattle: 10 mg/kg
  • Beef cattle and sheep: iv-five mg/kg
  • Pigs: 6 mg/kg
  • Horses: five-8 mg/kg

    High levels of Molybdenum and/or sulphate create unusable salts and may increase the copper requirements 2-3 times. Many areas in Kenya have copper deficiency in the soils and produce feed deficient in copper. Deficiency symptoms are not specific and may include any of the following: Bleaching of pilus in cattle especially around the eyes, abnormal wool growth in sheep, muscular incoordination, weakness at birth, anaemia, severe diarrhoea. Prevention and cure: Supplementation of livestock with copper in copper scarce areas is essential. This can exist done by using trace mineralized salt containing from 0.25-0.l% copper sulphate. Pigs may exist fed upwardly to maximum 250 g copper/kg dry feed. More than than 100 mg copper per kilo dry out matter may exist toxic to cattle and over 50 mg/kg will be toxic for sheep. Information technology is also possible to repair your grazing areas for specially ruminants by upgrading the soil content of copper according to soil analysis recommendations. Generally grass and fodder deficient in copper take xanthous or burnt leaf tips and low rates of production. Soybean, aerial parts, Cocoa pods and hulls, Cassava, foliage silage, Cowpea, aerial parts, Sunflower, block, Maize Stover, Coffee hulls Cotton seed meal, Barley harbinger and Wheat bran tin can be sources of copper.

• Fluorine: necessary for healthy teeth, but excess may weaken and stain the teeth. In Kenya fluorine deficiencies are not common, but drinking water peculiarly from boreholes often comprise very high levels of fluorine. If the levels of fluorine are too loftier water can be filtered through a filter containing burnt bones, which will absorb most of the fluorine. This is more practical for human water consumption than for livestock. In almost parts of Kenya highlands there is excess of fluorides in surface water and ground h2o. Harvesting rainwater for domestic utilise can better the problem. H2o can too exist treated to lower the fluoride level. The all-time advice for h2o treatment for excessive fluorine can exist obtained from the Catholic Diocese in Nakuru.
  
• Manganese: influences oestrus, ovulation, foetal evolution, udder evolution, milk production, growth and skeletal evolution. Requirements:
  • Dairy cattle: forty mg/kg of dry thing feed
  • Beef cattle and sheep: 5-20 mg per kg dry out matter feed
  • Pigs: 10-20 mg/kg dry affair feed.

    Deficiency symptoms noted from areas deficient in soil manganese include: delayed oestrus, reduced ovulation, abortions, resorptions, deformed young, "knuckle over" in calves, poor growth. Supplementation is hands done with trace mineralized salts containing 0.25% manganese. Rice products, Guinea grass, Kenya sheep grass, Sugariness potato vines, Sorghum harbinger, Wheat bran, Rhodes grass, Kikuyu grass and Napier grass van be rich in manganese.

• Molybdenum: Important in poultry as it stimulates uric acid germination, and in ruminants stimulates activity of rumen organisms. Molybdenum deficiencies take merely been observed in poultry in special cases. Molybdenum supplementation is ordinarily non recommended in livestock production. High amounts limit copper availability. Soybean cake, Rice bran, Lucerne, Wheat bran and Sunflower cake tin be loftier in molybdenum.
  
• Selenium: works in vitamin Due east assimilation and utilization.
  Requirements: most 0.1 mg or less per kg dry out feed. Deficiency symptoms include: Nutritional muscular dystrophy in lambs and calves, retained placenta in cows, middle failure, paralysis, poor growth, depression fertility, liver necrosis, pancreatic fibrosis in chicks. Many areas in Kenya are known to have selenium deficiency of the soils. If selenium deficiency is expected, a soil or feed sample can be sent to any of the major laboratories for analysis. Supplementation must exist done very carefully equally selenium in likewise large quantities is poisonous and causes the same issues equally selenium deficiency. i gram Selenium in the form of sodium selenite can be added to 10 kg dry out feed in deficient areas (=10g or two teaspoons per 100 kg feed- really not much). Fish meal, Wheat bran, Sorghum grain, Sunflower cake, Lucerne, Wheat grain, Soybean hulls and Rice bran are adept sources of selenium.
  
• Zinc: promotes growth and thriftiness. Promotes wound healing, related to hair and hoofs/claws and wool growth. Deficiencies mostly found in pigs fed on concrete floors. Deficiency symptoms include: general unthriftiness, poor growth, unhealthy looking hair, skin and wool, boring wound healing. Pigs can exist supplemented with 50 mg of zinc per kg of dry feed or every bit trace mineralized salt. Good sources of zinc tin be: Soybean, aerial parts, Sugarcane forage, Sunflower heads, Banana, stalks, Neem tree, leaves, Mango leaves, Jackfruit leaves, Maize bran and Fish meal.

A well balanced mineral salt mixture adjusted to local conditions is the easiest way to ensure good mineral balance in animal feeds. It is non common to have feeds analysed for minerals and trace-elements because of the high toll of analysing. Gratis ranging livestock do get reasonable adequate quantities from nature or from sites with natural minerals licks. Commercial mineral mixtures are bachelor and are highly recommended for high yielding cows and intensively raised chickens and pigs.

Mineral, Energy and Protein content of the most of import feeds in Kenya

Tables 1 and 2 give mineral content of the most important feeds in Kenya (Jack Ouda, KARI NARL 2009)

Table ane: Quality of some normally available roughages in Kenya

Tabular array ii: Quality of some commonly available concentrates and agro-industrial by-products in Kenya

Vitamins

Vitamins in ruminant feeding

While all the different vitamins are essential for all livestock, nether most conditions merely vitamin A needs to be given attention in ruminant feeding. ss-carotene and/or Vit A tin be stored in the liver and body tissues during periods of high intake and used during periods of depression intake. Vitamin A is found in green plants, carrots and other feed stuff.

Vitamin B is usually synthesized in the rumen of ruminants.For other animals it is benign to include small amounts of feed from animal origin to supply vitamin B12, every bit this vitamin is but found in animal products. Vitamin C volition nearly of the time be enough in the green roughages eaten by ruminants , but non-ruminants will need access to green vegetation or vegetables to cover their vitamin C needs. Vitamin D gets produced when animals are exposed to straight sunlight, for which reason it is always advisable to give livestock a hazard to spend time in the dominicus.

Vitamin A deficiencies in ruminants may include:

• Reduced feed intake
• Slow weight gains
• Night incomprehension
• Swollen hocks, knees, and brisket
• Total blindness
• Diarrhoea
• Muscular incoordination
• Staggering gait
• Reduced sexual activity
• Depression fertility in bulls
• Poor formulation rates
• Abortion in cows

For this reason information technology is advisable to supplement ruminant feed with Vitamin A (or carrots if bachelor) during periods where little green fodder is available.

Vitamins in sus scrofa nutrition

Pigs demand a lot more vitamin supplements than ruminants. As for ruminants Vitamin D can be produced by the pigs themselves if they are given a chance to spend fourth dimension in directly sunlight. This does not always happen in today's pig product. So recommendations for vitamins to pigs look equally follows:

• Vitamin A: Add 2-3 % good quality Lucerne meal or similar (such as stale crushed comfrey or amaranth leaves) to the normal squealer rations. Another alternative can once again exist carrots if cheap enough and available.
• Vitamin D: Try to betrayal the pigs to sunlight. If this is not possible addition of Vitamin D supplementation is needed.
• Riboflavin: This is found in Lucerne meal, dark-green plants, fish repast or milk products. If none of these are used in the pig feed, supplementation with riboflavin is recommended.
• Niacin: As most feeds are short of this vitamin, supplementation is recommended. Some skilful sources of Niacin include: rice and wheat bran, sunflower meal, brewer's yeast and fish meal.
• Pantothenic Acrid: Supplementation recommended with for example rice or wheat bran, rice polishing, sunflower repast, Lucerne repast, fish- or peanut meal, brewer'due south yeast.
• Vitamin B12: This vitamin is simply found in brute products such equally fish meal, claret meal, or for open up range pigs and poultry: insects, grubs, etc. If your pigs are by and large fed on soya meal for their protein, a small addition of fishmeal will be beneficial.
• Choline: Is usually sufficient in pig rations.
• Vitamin E: Effective vitamin Eastward utilization is dependent on adequate selenium, and selenium is sometimes deficient in feed from some areas. If selenium content of feed is a problem too the production of vitamin East will exist a problem. Ask advice on Vitamin E from your livestock nutritionist.

  The values in Tabular array 3 for vitamin content of feed stuffs, should only be used as guidelines, as vitamin content depends on weather atmospheric condition where the crops are grown. However information technology can be seen which crops are able to produce the various essential vitamins.

  Table 3: Vitamin content of some feeds - American values (From Cullison 1987) as Kenya values are not available. It is causeless that similar products in Africa do not differ substantially in Vitamin limerick, and so the values indicated tin exist used when choosing which ingredients to balance your feeds from.

  Alfalfa = Lucerne, Copra repast = coconut meal, Corn = Maize. It is oft convenient to supplement livestock with vitamin mineral mixtures in form of lick or when composing feed formula to include a vitamin mineral premix. These vitamin mineral premixes are generally bachelor.

  Essential amino acids in some important feeds

  Essential amino acids in some important feeds

  Essential amino acids in some important feeds

  Essential amino acids in some important feeds

Fibre requirements and H2o

Fibre Requirements

Domestic livestock crave varying amounts of dietary fibre to keep them healthy and keep the digestive organisation agile. The more fibrous feed stuffs are, the lower the energy and poly peptide content and the more energy it takes to digest the feed. It is tempting to feed fast growing animals such as broilers and piglets a diet low in fibre in order to exist able to eat plenty calories and poly peptide for fast growth. In general those feed stuffs are more than expensive, and could results in lower quality meat production. Animals should always have plenty fibres to keep them healthy and go on them occupied to maintain or create a organization in which animals have high resistance. Strong animals in good for you and hygienic surroundings are less susceptible for diseases and don't need preventive antibiotics. In organic system preventive antibiotics are not immune. Such low fibre diets makes the animals susceptible to diseases. Improver of antibiotics in animal feed has again led to traces of antibiotics in their meat, and the development of antibiotic resistant homo disease bacteria, as humans are the ultimate consumers.

For animals to atomic number 82 a healthy life, they must swallow enough dietary fibre to go on the stomach/ rumen good for you and functioning. However there are limits; besides loftier content of fibre (lignin, dry cellulose) will make full the tum without bringing enough nutrients along. Diverse livestock species have unlike adaptabilities to high fibre diets. In a nutrition it will be a compromise betwixt the energy needs of an beast and the possibility to meet the needs: the higher the production, the higher the free energy density of the ration should be.

Water

Water is a necessary compound of plants and animals. Growing plants contain 70-80% water and animals incorporate lxx-ninety% water. Water has several important functions in the brute trunk such as regulation of body temperature, carrier of nutrients, regulation of tissue structure etc. Water is needed to brand saliva for swallowing feed and for chewing the cud, for feed to be digested, to cool the body when it is too hot and to remove waste product materials from the body in the urine and faeces. In improver a milking cow (and as well suckling sows, camels and donkeys) needs water for milk production. Lack of h2o will impale an animal faster than lack of whatever other nutrient. Lack of sufficient amounts of h2o or provision of poor quality water will seriously reduce animal operation.

Minimum Space and Water Consuption

The normal range of water consumption for developed animals has been summarized as below:

Livestock blazon	Water consumption in litres/day
Camels	every 5-8 days every bit much every bit they tin potable (up to 100 liter or 1 third of body weight) daily about 15-30 litres
Beef cattle	35-threescore per head
Dairy cattle	xxx-80 per head
Horses	24-36 per caput
Donkeys/mules	Twice a day as much every bit they can drink (10-25)
Pigs	xv-25 per caput
Sheep and goats	v-20 per head
Chickens	40-50 per 100 birds = 0.5 litre per bird
Turkeys	40-75 per 100 birds = 0.75 litre per bird
Rabbit	l-150 Millilitre (=0.1 litre) h2o per kilogram bodyweight (small cup)

Water should be available at all times (except for camels, they can do with water every 5-8 days) and be clean and fresh.

Remember that young animals also need water! Fifty-fifty when they are milk fed, information technology is non always fulfilling their needs for liquids, especially not if active and if it is warm or hot and dry out, or possibly even windy.

Cattle:

Ideally, water should be bachelor to dairy cattle at all times.

Rule of thumb: If this is non possible, a rule of pollex is to supply 1 litre of water for every x kg of live-weight of the cow plus 1.v litres of water per 1 litre of milk produced.Then a cow of 500 kg live weight and a milk yield of xv kg a day needs 50 + 22.5 = 72.five litres of h2o every day.

Dairy cows

Table 4a. Water requirements for dairy cows dependent on ambient temperature and milk yield

(NRC 2001) (deemed with formula of Murphy et al, 1983)

The corporeality of water dairy cattle will drink is influenced past the quantity of dry affair ingested a factor of the dry out matter content of the diet, the chemical limerick of the diet, water quality, environmental temperatures and physiological state of the beast.

Table 4b shows water requirements for dairy cows at different ambient temperatures based on dry out affair intake requirements. When fresh grass is fed, with a dry thing content of 25%, every 10 kg of grass comprise 7,v kg of water. When hay is fed, with a dry matter content of eighty%, every 10 kg of hay contains merely 2 kg of water.

Tabular array 4b: Water requirements for dairy cows dependent on ambient temperature, dry matter intake and milk yield

Feed additives

A feed additive is divers every bit a feed ingredient of not-nutritive nature that stimulates growth or other type of functioning or improves the efficiency of feed utilization or that may be beneficial in some manner to the health or metabolism of the beast. Examples of feed additives for dairy cattle are anti-helminthic (Dewormers), anti-bloat agents, rumen buffers (NaHCO3, MgO), flavouring agents (Molasses), rumen microbes for fibre digestion (Yea sac) and growth promoters or hormone-like substances. For feed manufacturers it is now common practice to add yea sac and rumen buffers to commercial dairy concentrate. Also some farmers who offer full mixed rations (TMR) to their cattle apply these feed additives. On small holder farms feed additives are non commonly added to dairy cattle rations. In organic agriculture these substances are non canonical as direction tools.

Feed quality

At farm level, dairy cattle are exposed to many feeds, with diets varying in different regions and farming systems. The productivity of a dairy system is highly dependent on the quality of feeds. This is because the feed quality determines the intake and availability of ingested nutrients for utilization by the dairy cattle. Consequently, farmers are not only faced with the problem of knowing the quality of the feeds but besides the factors that influence the quality. The objective of this chapter is to provide highlights of information about quality indicators of cattle feeds and backgrounds of some measurements of feed quality often encountered in dairy industry. The highlights include physical indicators and some scientific feed evaluation methods that tin can be employed to determine feed quality.

Physical indicators of feed quality

The physical nature of the feeds can pose serious limitations to efficient utilization of a feed or a ration comprised of several feed resource. Nonetheless, the influence of concrete attributes of feeds on quality is often ignored. Some of the physical aspects that can limit the quality and utilization of feeds in dairy production are briefly discussed:

Stage of growth

Vetch(Vicia villosis) harvesting at the right phase of growth

(c) T. P. Lanyasunya, Kenya

The nutritive quality of forages varies as they abound towards maturity. Consideration of the stage at which both biomass yield and nutrient content are optimal is therefore of import. Subsequently attainment of maturity, the forages by and large depreciate in nutritive value. This is mostly due to increase fibrous fabric, particularly lignin. For many forages, the leaves die off systemically after attainment of maturity, and this reduces photosynthetic activities. As a result, there will be reduced accumulation of nutrients: the yield does non increase anymore. These factors are important to be considered e.g. when harvesting forage for conservation as hay. For instance, when making hay from grass (due east.g. Rhodes grass) and legumes (e.m. Lucerne) it is generally advisable to cut at the onset of flowering upwards to the time of fifty% flowering. For a vegetatively propagated forage such as Napier grass, cutting height is the nigh important physical consideration for quality. Studies accept shown that optimum harvesting peak for Napier grass range betwixt 50-60 cm (dry season) and 130-140 (rainy season). Another disadvantage of a mature phase and dying leaves is that the leaves fall off and are lost from the roughage. The leaves in general contain most easy available feeding value.

Texture

Grass exhibiting difference in quality due to the bear on of texture

(c) JO Ouda, KARI, Republic of kenya

The physical/textural changes which occur as forages grow tin impact on palatability, intake and animal digestive physiology. For instance, high intake of succulent young forages (eastward.one thousand. Lucerne, vetch, clover and Comelina spp) may cause bloat. At immature phase the dry matter (DM) content of some forages tin can be very low (e.g. sweet-potato vines and Napier grass), and this tin can limit the adequate intake of dry out thing to support the desired level of production. The palatability can be compromised every bit the forages age because of increase in toughness and rough fibre. This tin can further complicate issues if some species and classes of livestock e.m. young ones are unable to consume gristly old and tough forages or parts of.

Ratio of stem and leaf

Information technology is of import to accept knowledge of the nutritive attributes of the diverse morphological components of the individual forages. In forage crops, the leaf is in virtually cases the most nutritive component, hence the need to consider the utilization of a provender when the biomass yield and leaf:stem ratio are optimal.

Processing

Where the cattle are stall fed with chopped roughage, the particle size may play an of import role in selection, intake and digestibility. For example, the chop length of ensiled maize stovers take been shown to influence the pick where leafy parts are consumed more and the overall intake is reduced with increase in chop length. Also, where dissimilar feed resources are to be mixed, the particle size must be considered to enable homogeneity in mixing.

Some ingredients necessary in the diets may not exist in appropriate physical/textural class for cattle intake. Generally, cattle practise non prefer powdery or finely processed feeds. Besides, feed resources like molasses (semi-liquid) demand to be mixed accordingly with a carrier feed. Some feed additives or supplements are better provided in pellet or lick block forms e.1000. calf pellets and mineral licks. Information technology prevents selective intake.

Appearance and Colour

Generally, feeds take their own typical appearance, which the farmers are or should be familiar with. The appearance can be an of import attraction to both farmers and animals. Difference from the typical advent should be taken seriously as this may accept implication on quality. The color of specific feed resources tin can exist proficient indicators for the quality of the feed. Thus feed users need to know the typical colour of feeds and then that when in that location is deviation from the norm, precaution tin be observed. For almost fresh forages, greenish colour indicates proficient quality. For instance, greenness may depict good growing conditions, hence affluence of nutrients. It may also indicate absence of diseases, pests and parasites. Appropriate colour tin exist used by farmers to judge the stage of harvesting. In concentrates and processed feeds it is more difficult to gauge the quality on the colour. Whole grains on the opposite can exist judges well on color and smooth.

Freshness

Freshness of the feeds tin can exist indicated by e.g. colour, smell and/or presence of mould and temperature. Mostly, the cattle intake will be negatively affected as the feed deteriorates in freshness. Consumption of stale feed can damage the cattle due to toxicity.

Mould infested maize stovers equally a consequence of poor conservation practice.

(c) JO Ouda, Kenya

Presence of visible undesirable objects is besides a expert pointer to poor quality. The foreign bodies may include soil, pieces of glass, polythene, nails and metals and woods particles or rodent faeces. Visual inspection of feeds should non be neglected, because this can lead to harmful or at worse fatal consequences for the animals existence fed. Be certain that there are no poisonous plants or parts included in the feed and no residues of pesticides or herbicides.

Dairy meal contaminated with foreign objects.

Dairy meal contaminated with foreign objects.

(c) JO Ouda, Kenya

Acceptability

Cattle, like most animals have natural instinct of preference. Information technology is therefore possible that a skilful feed may be rejected because animals are not familiar with information technology and have to get accustomed. On the other hand, rejection of certain feeds can be a good indicator of subconscious factors which should exist identified and eliminated to improve the intake. In this regard, information technology may exist dangerous and unethical to provide such a feed in mixtures where the cattle cannot select and are forced to consume it. It is therefore necessary to ascertain the factors causing rejection and the benefits of such a feed earlier its employ.
I of the commonest feature of dairy cattle feeding in Kenya is variability of blazon and nature of roughage feed. This is due of fodder inadequacy and this has implications on acceptability and as well utilization due to its effect on rumen microbe limerick. It takes time for the rumen microbe composition to stabilize with change of diet and consequently digestibility and utilization of the feed. br]

Negative symptoms after feeding

Cattle may consume feeds normally, but at that place can exist negative symptoms shown as effect of the consumption of certain feeds. These may include diarrhoea, aberrant water intake, bloat, poor appetite, non-typical or unpleasant smells in products (east.g. milk) and excreta and of discomfort. Appropriate activity must be to ascertain the quality aspects of the feed concerned when such negative effects are noted.

Formulation of balanced dairy cattle rations

Inadequate nutrition is a major cause of low live-weight gains, infertility and depression milk yields in dairy cattle. About 50-70 % of cost of dairy production is made up of toll of feeds. It is important to use the available feeds in a diet that meets the needs of the cattle in the different stages of production.

Poorly nourished dairy cow

(c) JO Ouda, KARI, Kenya

Adept dairy cattle feeding practices can exist implemented with due regard to different food requirements for the various classes of dairy stock in order to avoid either overfeeding or underfeeding of the dairy cattle and hence wastage of scarce feed resources. Balanced dairy cattle rations can be formulated using various methods, A simple calculation of the principal ingredients and estimating the minerals and vitamins content or more than accurate calculations using different models for reliable rations. For smallholder farmers the sophisticated method volition non be applicable considering of lack of reliable chemical composition of the feed and complicated calculations. If feed specifics are available and precise rations are wanted, the help of the local livestock Production Officer could be of help in ration adding.

Dairy cattle feed requirements

Dairy cattle feed requirements depend very much on their weight and stage of production. Whereas most farmers do not accept access to weighing scales that can weigh animals, a system has been developed whereby the weight can be adamant by chest measurements using a unproblematic measuring tape (weigh ring) available everywhere. The weigh band is placed around the chest a hand's breadth backside the front legs and not too tight.

How to estimate the alive-weight of dairy cattle

The corporeality of feed which will provide adequate nutrients to animals volition depend on their trunk size (live-weight). Figure 1 and 2 beneath give data which tin be used past farmers to estimate live-weight of their cattle from girth measurements. For example: a calf with a breast girth of 61 cm volition have a weight of nigh 31 kg, a cow with a chest girth of 188 cm volition weigh about 550 kg.

Figure 1. Interpretation of live-weight of cattle based on breast girth

Animal diet and feed rations

(c) Lanyasunya et al, KARI, Kenya

Figure 2: Estimation of live-weight of dairy cattle using chest girth measurements

Maximum dry thing intake

Animal feedstuff can be divided into two major components namely dry matter and water. The dry affair component consists of organic and inorganic matter. The organic affair consists of carbohydrates (source of energy), lipids and fats (source of energy), poly peptide and vitamins. The inorganic thing is the source of macro- and micro-minerals. Since all nutrients are independent in the dry thing the beast must consume this portion in acceptable amounts to obtain the required nutrients.

With feeds depression in energy there is a risk that the intake capacity of the animals is also small to consume enough nutrients to see the requirements for maintenance and production. Low energy feeds might exist feeds with high moisture content (low dry matter) or feeds with loftier fibre content (depression energy) or a combination. The maximum dry mater intake is about 3 - 3.five% of a cows live weight and can be estimated with the formula kg Dry mater/cow/twenty-four hours = 0.025*live-weight + 0.1*kg milk.

Table 5: Dairy cattle nether stall feeding; feed intake must adequately supply desired nutrients.

(c) JO Ouda, KARI, Kenya

Tabular array 5 shows the maximum dry matter intake by dairy cattle of various alive-weights. The intake chapters increases with live-weight and milk production (in the table kg milk standardized at four% butterfat).

	Cow live-weight (kg)
Milk yield (4% Butter-fat)	350	400	450	500	550	600
5	ten.0	x.five	11.0	11.v	12.0	12.5
10	10.5	xi.0	eleven.5	12.0	12.5	13.0
fifteen	12.0	13.0	13.5	14.0	14.5	15.5
20	13.five	14.five	15.v	xvi.0	17.0	17.5
25	15.0	16.0	17.0	17.5	18.5	19.v
thirty	16.5	17.5	xix.0	nineteen.5	20.v	21.0

Food requirements for maintenance and milk production

The nutrient requirements for maintenance of animals are influenced by their live-weight, action (east.g. walking long distance) and environmental temperature (besides cold or too hot). Tabular array 6 shows nutrient requirements for maintenance of dairy cattle of various live-weights (NRC, 1988. Dairying in KwaZulu-Natal, 1995 ). Dry affair intake is calculated with Fuentes-Pila (2003) and NRC (2001).

Table 6: Daily nutrient requirements for a dairy moo-cow of a certain live weight and a certain milk production

Nutrient requirements for growth of young stock

The corporeality of nutrients required past an animal is equal to the nutrients in the tissue gained. Nutrients concentrations in deposited tissue are influenced past the animal rate of weight gain and the stage of growth or alive-weight. The nutrients required for growth by dairy cattle of diverse live-weights are given in Table vii (NRC, 2001).

Table 7. Daily nutrient requirements for growth of young stock of dairy cattle

Nutrient requirements for milk production

When feeding a dairy moo-cow the aim should exist to maximize milk yield by meeting cow's feed requirements. Requirements for milk production will depend on the corporeality of milk produced by the cow, energy content of milk which is indicated by fat content (the higher the fatty content the higher the free energy required).

Table 8: Nutrient requirements for production of i kg of milk of various butter fat contents

Milk fat (%)	ME Free energy (MJ)	Crude poly peptide (thou)	Calcium (g)	Phosphorus (g)
three.0	four.5	78	ii.seven	1.seven
3.5	4.8	84	3.0	1.8
iv.0	five.2	90	three.2	2.0
iv.5	v.5	96	3.5	two.1
5.0	5.ix	101	3.seven	ii.3
v.5	6.two	107	3.9	2.iv

In improver to nutrient requirements for milk production nutrients will also be required to cater for other functions such every bit reproduction (pregnant cows crave more to cater for growth of calf) and growth rate if she is non mature (in instance of kickoff dogie cows).

Tabular array i shows that the energy required for the production of 1 kg of milk tin can exist met by amongst others 1 kg of dry thing of coffee hulls, napier grass early blossom, star grass or straw of rice, barley or wheat.

Mineral, trace-element and vitamin requirements for cattle

When bachelor from feed analyses or from boilerplate feed composition, the amount of minerals, trace-elements and vitamins in a ration tin can also be calculated and compared with the beast requirements (as shown in table 9).

Table 9. Requirements of minerals, trace-elements and main vitamins for different categories of cattle.

Tabular array ix. Requirements of minerals, trace-elements and main vitamins for unlike categories of cattle.

As mentioned before, in generally rations with roughages for cattle volition be low in copper, selenium and cobalt.

Proportions of basal diet and supplement in a dairy cow ration

The cheapest feed for milk production is good quality roughage. However, quality of roughage fed to dairy cattle is ordinarily depression resulting in sub-optimal levels of production. Farther increment in production can therefore be achieved past the apply of supplements. Among the factors influencing the quantities of roughage and supplements offered are their quality and level of production of dairy cattle. Table ten shows simple guidelines on proportions of basal diet and supplements depending on levels of milk production in dairy cattle.

Table x: Proportion of basal diet and supplements in dairy cattle rations

Milk yield (kg/mean solar day)	Basal diet DM (%)	Supplement DM (%)
10-fourteen	70	30
15-19	60	twoscore
xx-24	fifty	50
25 and more	forty	lx

Ration formulation guidelines

The feeds in rations fed to dairy cattle either originate from the subcontract or are purchased. In order to minimize feed wastage and to overcome the problem of low levels of production, feeds demand to be efficiently utilized past the animal. A cow fed on balanced ration will utilize the feed more than efficiently and hence it production will be improve than a cow fed on imbalanced rations. Feed rations that are offered to dairy cows are considered balanced if they provide acceptable nutrients (Carbohydrates, protein and minerals) to see the animal requirements for maintenance, reproduction, growth and milk product.

For ration calculation the composition of the feed must be available and the requirements of the animal must be known. The composition of the farms own feed will non be bachelor from all split feeds. Tables1 and ii to a higher place give an overview of the composition of feedstuffs used in Kenya: the values tin be used in ration calculations. In tabular array half dozen the mean requirements for dairy cattle are mentioned as a guideline: in different weather weather and for instance in diseased animals requirements tin can be slightly different.

Formulation of rations using a elementary procedure

The simple procedure to calculate rations is chosen so that all farmers are able to calculate their ain dairy rations. Using average composition data in this simple calculation gives a good idea where the ration needs bounty.

If the following information is provided:

• A cow weighing 450 kg and producing xx kg/day of milk (4 % butter fatty)
• Feeds available:
  - Napier grass, young: vii.9 Mj ME and 98 gram CP per kg DM
  - dairy repast: 9.ane Mj ME and 156 gram CP per kg DM
  - Maclick super:

How much of the Napier, dairy meal and minerals volition meet the cows requirements.

STEP 1
From tabular array five estimate maximum dry matter intake for a 450 kg cow producing xx kg of milk (iv % butter fatty) = 17 kg. The cow needs 161 Mj ME and 1826 g crude protein (and 75 g Calcium and 59 chiliad Phosphor).

STEP 1a. Calculate whether information technology is possible to feed the cow with napier grass as the sole feed. Divide the ME requirement of the moo-cow past the ME content of the napier grass: 161 / 7.9 = twenty.4 kg DM of napier grass. That is far more the maximum dry out matter intake capacity of the moo-cow. That shows that with napier grass as sole feed the cow cannot swallow enough to produce 20 kg of milk.STEP 2
From tabular array 6 approximate proportions of Napier and dairy meal for a cow producing 20 kg/ mean solar day of milk Napier grass = 17*50/100 = 8.five kg DM and the other one-half of the ration is Dairy meal = also viii.5 kg DM.

STEP 3
From tables one and ii approximate nutrients supplied by the feedstuffs and from table 6 estimate nutrient requirements past a 450 kg moo-cow producing xx kg/ day of milk (4 % butter fat)

Nutrients supplied by feeds and requirements to produce 20 kg/day of milk

There is a shortage of 16.5 Mj ME and a surplus of poly peptide. According to tabular array 811 does the free energy shortage correspond with three kg of milk. To close the gap to 20 kg of milk, the cow needs more than energy rich feed while the poly peptide content can be lower; for example cassava peels. By replacing 3 kg of dairy repast by cassava peels, energy and protein get more in residue with the requirements of the moo-cow. Whether the dairy repast will be replaced past an energy rich feed depends on the cost of the feed stuffs and the price of the actress milk produced.

Pace 4
Guess the amount of feed to be fed to the cow per twenty-four hours. The ration contains 8.5 kg of dry out thing from Napier grass. Fresh Napier grass has a dry affair content of xx%, or 200 g/kg. The cow should be fed viii.5*1000/200 = 42.5 kg fresh Napier grass. If 5 % of the grass is wasted (not eaten past the cow) she should be provided with 42.5 *i.05) = 45 kg of fresh Napier grass. Dairy meal with a dry matter content of 90% has to be provided 8.5 *1.10 = 9.three kg. Calcium and phosphor are sufficient.

Information Sources

• Cullison, A.E. and Lowrey, R.S. (1987). Feeds and Feeding (4th edition). Prentice-Hall Inc.. ISBN: 0-8359-1907-2 025
• Dryden, G. McL. (2008). Animal Nutrition Scientific discipline. CABI, United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland. ISBN: 978 ane 84593 412 five.
• Etgen, Westward. K., James, R.Eastward, and Reaves, P.M (1987). Dairy Cattle, Feeding and Management. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 0-471-90891-one
• Fuentes-Pila, J., Chiliad. Ibanez, J. M. De Miguel and D. One thousand. Beede. 2003. Predicting average feed intake of lactating Holstein cows fed totally mixed rations. J. Dairy Sci. 86:309-323.
• Haynes, C. (1985). Raising Chicken. TAB Books Inc. Blue Ridge Summit, PA 17214, Us. ISBN: 0-8306-0963-half-dozen
• Lanyasunya et al, KARI, undated: Estimation of live-weight of dairy cattle using chest girth measurements
• Pagot, J. (1992). Fauna Production in the Tropics. The Macmillan Printing Ltd, United kingdom. ISBN: 0-333-53818-8.

Source: https://infonet-biovision.org/AnimalHealth/Animal-nutrition-and-feed-rations

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