Who Broadened Psychology To Include Animal Behavior, Religious Experience, Abnormal Behavior

Psychologists today practise not believe at that place is one "right" way to study the way people think or acquit. There are, notwithstanding, various schools of idea that evolved throughout the evolution of psychology that continue to shape the way psychologists investigate human beliefs. For example, some psychologists might attribute a certain behavior to biological factors such as genetics while another psychologist might consider early babyhood experiences to be a more than likely explanation for the behavior. Because psychologists might emphasize various points inside psychology in their research and assay of behavior, in that location are unlike viewpoints in psychology. These schools of thought are known every bit approaches, or perspectives.

Link to Learning: Review the five main psychological perspectives found HERE.

The Psychodynamic Perspective

Psychodynamic theory is an arroyo to psychology that studies the psychological forces underlying human being behavior, feelings, and emotions, and how they may relate to early babyhood experience. This theory is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious and unconscious motivation, and asserts that behavior is the product of underlying conflicts over which people often take piddling awareness.

Psychodynamic theory was born in 1874 with the works of German scientist Ernst von Brucke, who supposed that all living organisms are energy systems governed by the principle of the conservation of energy. During the same year, medical student Sigmund Freud adopted this new "dynamic" physiology and expanded it to create the original concept of "psychodynamics," in which he suggested that psychological processes are flows of psychosexual energy (libido) in a circuitous brain. Freud also coined the term "psychoanalysis." Later, these theories were developed further past Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Melanie Klein, and others. By the mid-1940s and into the 1950s, the general application of the "psychodynamic theory" had been well established.

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud adult the field of psychoanalytic psychology and the psychosexual theory of human development.

The Role of the Unconscious

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis holds two major assumptions: (ane) that much of mental life is unconscious (i.due east., outside of awareness), and (2) that past experiences, especially in early childhood, shape how a person feels and behaves throughout life. The concept of the unconscious was cardinal: Freud postulated a wheel in which ideas are repressed but continue to operate unconsciously in the heed, and and so reappear in consciousness under certain circumstances. Much of Freud'south theory was based on his investigations of patients suffering from "hysteria" and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis that was primarily used for women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances with no apparent physical cause. The history of the term tin can exist traced to ancient Hellenic republic, where the idea emerged that a woman'southward uterus could float effectually her body and cause a variety of disturbances. Freud theorized instead that many of his patients' bug arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud's view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which nosotros have no awareness.

The treatment of a patient referred to as Anna O. is regarded equally marker the beginning of psychoanalysis. Freud worked together with Austrian physician Josef Breuer to care for Anna O.'due south "hysteria," which Freud unsaid was a result of the resentment she felt over her father'southward real and physical disease that later on led to his death. Today many researchers believe that her illness was non psychological, every bit Freud suggested, just either neurological or organic.

The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud's structural model of personality divides the personality into three parts—the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the unconscious part that is the cauldron of raw drives, such as for sex or aggression. The ego, which has witting and unconscious elements, is the rational and reasonable part of personality. Its part is to maintain contact with the outside world to keep the individual in touch with lodge, and to do this information technology mediates between the conflicting tendencies of the id and the superego. The superego is a person's conscience, which develops early on in life and is learned from parents, teachers, and others. Like the ego, the superego has conscious and unconscious elements. When all 3 parts of the personality are in dynamic equilibrium, the private is thought to exist mentally healthy. Withal, if the ego is unable to mediate between the id and the superego, an imbalance is believed to occur in the form of psychological distress.

Freud's theory of the unconscious Freud believed that we are only enlightened of a pocket-size corporeality of our mind'due south activity, and that about of it remains hidden from united states in our unconscious. The information in our unconscious affects our beliefs, although we are unaware of it.

Psychosexual Theory of Development

Freud'due south theories as well placed a great deal of emphasis on sexual evolution. Freud believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during babyhood, and that if we lack proper nurturing during a particular stage, we may get stuck or fixated in that stage. Freud'south psychosexual model of evolution includes v stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. According to Freud, children'due south pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a unlike area of the body, chosen an erogenous zone, at each of these five stages. Psychologists today dispute that Freud's psychosexual stages provide a legitimate explanation for how personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud's theory is that personality is shaped, in some function, by experiences we take in babyhood.

Jungian Psychodynamics

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychotherapist who expanded upon Freud's theories at the turn of the 20th century. A central concept of Jung's analytical psychology is individuation: the psychological process of integrating opposites, including the conscious with the unconscious, while even so maintaining their relative autonomy. Jung focused less on infantile development and conflict between the id and superego and instead focused more on integration betwixt different parts of the person. Jung created some of the best-known psychological concepts, including the archetype, the collective unconscious, the complex, and synchronicity.

Psychodynamics Today

At present, psychodynamics is an evolving multidisciplinary field that analyzes and studies human being thought processes, response patterns, and influences. Research in this field focuses on areas such equally:

• understanding and anticipating the range of conscious and unconscious responses to specific sensory inputs, such as images, colors, textures, sounds, etc.;
• utilizing the chatty nature of movement and fundamental physiological gestures to bear upon and study specific mind-trunk states; and
• examining the chapters of the listen and senses to directly affect physiological response and biological alter.

Psychodynamic therapy, in which patients become increasingly aware of dynamic conflicts and tensions that are manifesting as a symptom or challenge in their lives, is an approach to therapy that is still commonly used today.

The Behavioral Perspective

Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction to the psychoanalytic theory of the time. Psychoanalytic theory frequently had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors tin can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such equally thoughts and beliefs. Rather than focusing on underlying conflicts, behaviorism focuses on observable, overt behaviors that are learned from the surround.

Its application to the treatment of mental problems is known as beliefs modification. Learning is seen as beliefs change molded by experience; it is accomplished largely through either classical or operant conditioning (described below).

The master developments in behaviorism came from the work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward Lee Thorndike, and B. F. Skinner.

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was widely known for describing the phenomenon now known every bit classical workout. In his famous 1890s experiment, he trained his dogs to salivate on command by associating the ringing of a bell with the delivery of food. Equally Pavlov's work became known in the West, peculiarly through the writings of John B. Watson, the thought of workout as an automated form of learning became a key concept in the evolution of behaviorism.

Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov is best known for his classical workout experiments with dogs.

Watson's "Little Albert" Experiment

John B. Watson was an American psychologist who is best known for his controversial "Fiddling Albert" experiment. In this experiment, he used classical conditioning to teach a nine-month-old boy to exist agape of a white toy rat past associating the rat with a sudden loud noise. This study demonstrated how emotions could go conditioned responses.

Watson's "Lilliputian Albert" experiment In Watson's famous experiment, he taught an babe to be afraid of a fur coat, amidst other things, through the process of conditioning.

Thorndike's Police force of Effect

Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist whose work on beast beliefs and the learning process led to the "law of effect." The law of effect states that responses that create a satisfying effect are more than probable to occur again, while responses that produce a discomforting upshot go less likely to occur.

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

"Operant workout," a term coined by psychologist B. F. Skinner, describes a class of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its association with either positive or negative consequences. The strengthening of a response occurs through reinforcement. Skinner described ii types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, which is the introduction of a positive outcome such as food, pleasurable activities, or attention from others, and negative reinforcement, which is the removal of a negative consequence such as pain or a loud noise. Skinner saw human behavior as shaped past trial and error through reinforcement and penalization, without whatsoever reference to inner conflicts or perceptions. In his theory, mental disorders represented maladaptive behaviors that were learned and could be unlearned through behavior modification.

Behaviorism Today

In the second one-half of the 20th century, behaviorism was expanded through advances in cerebral theories. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they take complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which has been used widely in the handling of many unlike mental disorders, such as phobias, PTSD, and addiction.

Some beliefs therapies employ Skinner'south theories of operant conditioning: by not reinforcing certain behaviors, these behaviors tin exist extinguished. Skinner's radical behaviorism advanced a "triple contingency" model, which explored the links betwixt the environment, behavior, and the mind. This afterward gave rise to practical behavior analysis (ABA), in which operant conditioning techniques are used to reinforce positive behaviors and punish unwanted behaviors. This approach to treatment has been an effective tool to help children on the autism spectrum; however, it is considered controversial by many who see it as attempting to change or "normalize" autistic behaviors (Lovaas, 1987, 2003; Sallows & Graupner, 2005; Wolf & Risley, 1967).

The Cognitive Perspective

Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, retention, and linguistic communication. "Noesis" refers to thinking and retention processes, and "cognitive development" refers to long-term changes in these processes. Much of the piece of work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modernistic disciplines of psychological study, including social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, and behavioral economics.

Cerebral psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in that it is characterized past both of the following:

1. It accepts the use of the scientific method and by and large rejects introspection every bit a valid method of investigation, dissimilar phenomenological methods such as Freudian psychoanalysis.
2. It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, want, and motivation), unlike behaviorist psychology.

Cognitive theory contends that solutions to bug have the form of algorithms, heuristics, or insights. Major areas of research in cognitive psychology include perception, memory, categorization, knowledge representation, numerical knowledge, language, and thinking.

History of Cognitive Psychology

Cerebral psychology is one of the more contempo additions to psychological research. Though there are examples of cognitive approaches from earlier researchers, cerebral psychology really adult as a subfield within psychology in the tardily 1950s and early 1960s. The evolution of the field was heavily influenced by gimmicky advancements in technology and computer science.

Early Roots

In 1958, Donald Broadbent integrated concepts from human-performance inquiry and the recently developed data theory in his volume Perception and Communication, which paved the way for the information-processing model of cognition. Ulric Neisser is credited with formally having coined the term "cognitive psychology" in his book of the same name, published in 1967. The perspective had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children.

Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cerebral revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement. Chomsky (1928–), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. He believed that psychology'south focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to reincorporate mental operation into its purview if it were to offering any meaningful contributions to agreement behavior (Miller, 2003).

Jean Piaget'due south Theory of Cerebral Development

Instead of approaching evolution from a psychoanalytic or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children's cognitive growth. He is most widely known for his stage theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children become able to call up logically and scientifically over time. As they progress to a new phase, in that location is a distinct shift in how they think and reason.

Jean Piaget Piaget is best known for his stage theory of cerebral development.

The Humanistic Perspective

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology, as well equally Eastern philosophy. Information technology adopts a holistic approach to human beingness through investigations of concepts such every bit meaning, values, liberty, tragedy, personal responsibleness, human potential, spirituality, and cocky-appearing.

Basic Principles of the Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective is a holistic psychological perspective that attributes human characteristics and actions to free will and an innate drive for self-actualization. This approach focuses on maximum human potential and accomplishment rather than psychoses and symptoms of disorder. It emphasizes that people are inherently practiced and pays special attending to personal experiences and creativity. This perspective has led to advances in positive, educational, and industrial psychology, and has been applauded for its successful awarding to psychotherapy and social issues. Despite its swell influence, humanistic psychology has too been criticized for its subjectivity and lack of evidence.

Developments in Humanistic Psychology

In the late 1950s, a group of psychologists convened in Detroit, Michigan, to discuss their interest in a psychology that focused on uniquely human issues, such as the self, cocky-actualization, wellness, promise, love, inventiveness, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning. These preliminary meetings somewhen culminated in the description of humanistic psychology as a recognizable "tertiary force" in psychology, along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Humanism's major theorists were Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, and Clark Moustakas; it was also influenced by psychoanalytic theorists, including Wilhelm Reich, who discussed an essentially good, healthy cadre cocky, and Carl Gustav Jung, who emphasized the concept of archetypes.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) is considered the founder of humanistic psychology, and is noted for his conceptualization of a hierarchy of man needs. He believed that every person has a strong desire to realize his or her full potential—or to accomplish what he chosen "self-appearing." Dissimilar many of his predecessors, Maslow studied mentally healthy individuals instead of people with serious psychological issues. Through his research he coined the term "pinnacle experiences," which he divers equally "high points" in which people feel at harmony with themselves and their surroundings. Self-actualized people, he believed, have more of these meridian experiences throughout a given day than others.

To explain his theories, Maslow created a visual, which he termed the "hierarchy of needs." This pyramid depicts various levels of concrete and psychological needs that a person progresses through during their lifetime. At the bottom of the pyramid are the basic physiological needs of a homo beingness, such as nutrient and water. The next level is prophylactic, which includes shelter and needs paramount to concrete survival. The third level, dearest and belonging, is the psychological need to share oneself with others. The fourth level, esteem, focuses on success, condition, and accomplishments. The acme of the pyramid is self-actualization, in which a person is believed to accept reached a state of harmony and agreement. Individuals progress from lower to higher stages throughout their lives, and cannot reach higher stages without start meeting the lower needs that come up earlier them.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs In Maslow'south hierarchy of needs, a person must first have their lower-level, physical needs met before they can progress to fulfilling college-level, psychological needs.

Rogers' Person-Centered Therapy

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) is all-time known for his person-centered arroyo, in which the relationship between therapist and client is used to assist the patient reach a state of realization, so that they can then help themselves. His non-directive approach focuses more on the present than the by and centers on clients' capacity for self-direction and agreement of their own development. The therapist encourages the patient to limited their feelings and does not suggest how the person might wish to change. Instead, the therapist uses the skills of active listening and mirroring to help patients explore and understand their feelings for themselves.

Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was 1 of the early pioneers of humanistic psychology, and is best known for his person-centered approach to therapy.

Rogers is too known for practicing "unconditional positive regard," which is divers equally accepting a person in their entirety with no negative judgment of their essential worth. He believed that those raised in an environs of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves, while those raised in an environment of provisional positive regard simply feel worthy if they match conditions that have been laid down past others.

May's Existentialism

Rollo May (1909–1994) was the best known American existential psychologist, and differed from other humanistic psychologists by showing a sharper awareness of the tragic dimensions of human being. May was influenced by American humanism, and emphasized the importance of human choice.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Humanistic psychology is holistic in nature: information technology takes whole persons into account rather than their divide traits or processes. In this way, people are not reduced to one particular attribute or fix of characteristics, merely instead are appreciated for the complex beings that they are. Humanistic psychology allows for a personality concept that is dynamic and fluid and accounts for much of the modify a person experiences over a lifetime. It stresses the importance of free will and personal responsibility for decision-making; this view gives the conscious human existence some necessary autonomy and frees them from deterministic principles. Perchance most importantly, the humanistic perspective emphasizes the need to strive for positive goals and explains human potential in a way that other theories cannot.

However, critics have taken event with many of the early on tenets of humanism, such as its lack of empirical evidence (as was the case with most early on psychological approaches). Because of the inherent subjective nature of the humanistic approach, psychologists worry that this perspective does not identify plenty abiding variables in order to be researched with consistency and accurateness. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of external societal factors on personality evolution. In improver, The major tenet of humanistic personality psychology—namely, that people are innately good and intuitively seek positive goals—does not account for the presence of deviance in the world within normal, performance personalities.

The Socio-Cultural Perspective

Sociocultural factors are the larger-scale forces within cultures and societies that affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals. These include forces such as attitudes, child-rearing practices, bigotry and prejudice, ethnic and racial identity, gender roles and norms, family unit and kinship structures, power dynamics, regional differences, religious beliefs and practices, rituals, and taboos. Several subfields inside psychology seek to examine these sociocultural factors that influence man mental states and behavior; among these are social psychology, cultural psychology, and cultural-historical psychology.

Cultural Psychology

Cultural psychology is the study of how psychological and behavioral tendencies are rooted and embedded within culture. The main tenet of cultural psychology is that heed and civilisation are inseparable and mutually constitutive, significant that people are shaped by their culture and their culture is as well shaped by them.

A major goal of cultural psychology is to aggrandize the number and variation of cultures that contribute to basic psychological theories, so that these theories go more relevant to the predictions, descriptions, and explanations of all human behaviors—not just Western ones. Populations that are Western, educated, and industrialized tend to be overrepresented in psychological research, even so findings from this research tend to be labeled "universal" and inaccurately applied to other cultures. The prove that social values, logical reasoning, and basic cognitive and motivational processes vary across populations has become increasingly difficult to ignore. By studying only a narrow range of culture within human populations, psychologists fail to account for a substantial amount of diverseness.

White American civilisation Populations that are Western, educated, and industrialized tend to exist overrepresented in psychological research. By studying only a narrow range of human culture, psychologists fail to business relationship for a substantial amount of variation.

Cultural psychology is often confused with cross-cultural psychology; however, it is distinct in that cross-cultural psychologists mostly employ civilization every bit a means of testing the universality of psychological processes, rather than determining how local cultural practices shape psychological processes. And then while a cross-cultural psychologist might inquire whether Jean Piaget's stages of development are universal across a diversity of cultures, a cultural psychologist would exist interested in how the social practices of a particular fix of cultures shape the development of cognitive processes in different ways.

Vygotsky and Cultural-Historical Psychology

Cultural-historical psychology is a psychological theory formed by Lev Vygotsky in the late 1920s and further developed by his students and followers in Eastern Europe and worldwide. This theory focuses on how aspects of culture, such equally values, beliefs, customs, and skills, are transmitted from one generation to the next. Co-ordinate to Vygotsky, social interaction—especially interest with knowledgeable community or family unit members—helps children to acquire the thought processes and behaviors specific to their culture and/or social club. The growth that children feel as a consequence of these interactions differs greatly between cultures; this variance allows children to go competent in tasks that are considered important or necessary in their particular society.

Social Psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. This subfield of psychology is concerned with the fashion such feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and goals are synthetic, and how these psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others.

Focus of Social Psychology

Social psychology typically explains homo behavior every bit a result of the interaction of mental states and immediate social situations. Social psychologists, therefore, examine the factors that pb united states to behave in a given way in the presence of others, also as the conditions under which certain behaviors, deportment, and feelings occur. They focus on how people construe or interpret situations and how these interpretations influence their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Ross & Nisbett, 1991). Thus, social psychology studies individuals in a social context and how situational variables interact to influence behavior.

Social psychologists assert that an private's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are very much influenced by social situations. Essentially, people will modify their beliefs to align with the social state of affairs at hand. If nosotros are in a new situation or are unsure how to behave, we volition take our cues from other individuals.

The field of social psychology studies topics at both the intrapersonal level (pertaining to the individual), such as emotions and attitudes, and the interpersonal level (pertaining to groups), such equally aggression and attraction. The field is also concerned with mutual cerebral biases—such as the central attribution mistake, the player-observer bias, the self-serving bias, and the just-world hypothesis—that influence our behavior and our perceptions of events.

Trayvon Martin, a 17-year-sometime African American youth, was shot to expiry at the hands of George Zimmerman, a white volunteer neighborhood watchman, in 2012. His death sparked a heated argue around the state near the effects of racism in the United States. Social psychologists conjecture virtually how different cognitive biases influence people's perspectives on the upshot. (credit "signs": modification of work by David Shankbone; credit "walk": modification of piece of work by "Fibonacci Blue"/Flickr)

History of Social Psychology

The bailiwick of social psychology began in the United states of america in the early on 20th century. The starting time published study in this surface area was an experiment in 1898 by Norman Triplett on the phenomenon of social facilitation. During the 1930s, Gestalt psychologists such as Kurt Lewin were instrumental in developing the field as something carve up from the behavioral and psychoanalytic schools that were dominant during that time.

During World War Two, social psychologists studied the concepts of persuasion and propaganda for the U.Southward. military. After the war, researchers became interested in a variety of social issues including gender bug, racial prejudice, cognitive noise, bystander intervention, aggression, and obedience to authority. During the years immediately following Globe State of war II there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and sociologists; however, the two disciplines accept get increasingly specialized and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists focusing more on macro-level variables (such equally social construction).

The Biological Perspective

Biopsychology—also known as biological psychology or psychobiology—is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior. The fields of behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology are all subfields of biological psychology.

Overview of Biopsychology

Biopsychologists are interested in measuring biological, physiological, and/or genetic variables and attempting to relate them to psychological or behavioral variables. Because all behavior is controlled by the key nervous organization, biopsychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in order to empathise behavior. Key areas of focus include sensation and perception, motivated beliefs (such every bit hunger, thirst, and sex), command of movement, learning and retentivity, slumber and biological rhythms, and emotion. As technical sophistication leads to advancements in research methods, more advanced topics, such every bit language, reasoning, decision-making, and consciousness, are now existence studied.

Brain-imaging techniques Different brain-imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into unlike aspects of how the human brain functions. 3 types of scans include (left to right) PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). (credit "left": modification of work by Health and Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit "eye": modification of work by "Aceofhearts1968"/Wikimedia Commons; credit "right": modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)

Behavioral neuroscience has a strong history of contributing to the agreement of medical disorders, including those that fall into the realm of clinical psychology. Neuropsychologists are often employed as scientists to accelerate scientific or medical cognition, and neuropsychology is specially concerned with understanding brain injuries in an effort to acquire about normal psychological functioning. Neuroimaging tools, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, are often used to notice which areas of the encephalon are active during particular tasks in order to aid psychologists sympathize the link between brain and beliefs.

MRI of the human brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the head are often used to help psychologists sympathise the links betwixt encephalon and behavior.

History

Biopsychology as a scientific discipline emerged from a diversity of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries. Philosophers like Rene Descartes proposed concrete models to explain animate being and human behavior. Descartes suggested, for case, that the pineal gland, a midline unpaired construction in the encephalon of many organisms, was the bespeak of contact between mind and body. In The Principles of Psychology (1890), William James argued that the scientific written report of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biological science. The emergence of both psychology and behavioral neuroscience as legitimate sciences tin can be traced to the emergence of physiology during the 18th and 19th centuries; nonetheless, information technology was not until 1914 that the term "psychobiology" was first used in its modernistic sense by Knight Dunlap in An Outline of Psychobiology.

Pineal gland Descartes suggested that the pineal gland was the point of contact between mind and body.

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